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A stereotype is a prejudice towards an individual that simplifies thought and labels an individual into a group that is characterized with certain attributes with which this individual is expected to support. Many of these assessments that are made of others are actually interactive processes. More simply stated, a stereotype is a preconceived and oversimplified notion of characteristics typical of a person or group. They are shortcuts that the mind uses for representation in our memory as summaries of the typical group member. They do not reflect reality properly because, even when they are based on truth, they are still a generalization about an individual which can never be completely accurate.
A stereotype is a generalized perception of first impressions: behaviors presumed by a group of people judging with the eyes/criticizing ones outer appearance (or a population in general) to be associated with another specific group. Stereotypes, therefore, can instigate prejudice and false assumptions about entire groups of people, including the members of different ethnic groups, social classes, religious orders, the opposite sex, etc. A stereotype can be a conventional and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image, based on the assumption that there are attributes that members of the "other group" have in common. Stereotypes are forms of social consensus rather than individual judgments. Stereotypes are sometimes formed by a previous illusory correlation, a false association between two variables that are loosely correlated if correlated at all. Though generally viewed as negative perceptions, stereotypes may be either positive or negative in tone.
The term "stereotype" derives from Greek στερεός (stereos) "solid, firm"1 + τύπος (tupos) "blow, impression, engraved mark"2 hence "solid impression". The term, in its modern psychology sense, was first used by Walter Lippmann in his 1922 work Public Opinion3 although in the printing sense it was first coined 1798.
Contents
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Causes
Sociologists believe that overall categorizing is necessary and inescapable. There are many forms of these groupings which we commonly call stereotypes. One perspective on how to organize stereotypes is through ingroups and outgroups. Ingroups are viewed as normal, and are generally the group that one associates with or attempts to connect with. An outgroup is simply all the other groups. These groups make up what we know to be stereotypes. They are viewed negatively and as lesser than the ingroups. A second perspective is that of automatic and implicit or subconscious and conscious. Automatic or subconscious stereotyping is that which everyone does without even taking notice of it occurring. Automatic stereotyping is quickly proceeded by an implicit or conscious check which permits time for any needed corrections. Automatic stereotyping is affected by implicit stereotyping because frequent conscious thoughts will quickly develop into subconscious stereotypes. A third method to categorizing stereotypes is general types and sub-types. Stereotypes consist of hierarchical systems consisting of broad and specific groups being the general types and sub-types respectively. A general type could be defined as a broad stereotype typically known among many people and usually widely accepted, whereas the sub-group would be one of the several groups making up the general group. These would be more specific, and opinions of these groups would vary according to differing perspectives.
The reason people stereotype can be simply summarized in stating that there is a present lack of knowledge and laziness to find the truth. Many times people find that it is too difficult to take in all of the complicated information about other people. With the desire of most people to do as little thinking as possible, it takes too much time to come up with an accurate assumption of someone. People want to categorize and organize the world into neat, little groups. Even though stereotyping is inaccurate, it is efficient. Socioculture perspective states that categorization is fundamental because it simplifies, allows predictability, and organizes. Once one has categorized and organized people into these neat, little groups, there is no longer a need to understand information about each individual. Applying the general information of group to individuals of that group saves time. Stereotyping satisfies ones desire to understand the social world. It eliminates the wonder of someone’s personality because it causes understanding through predictions. This prediction is formed around what is believed to be the typical group member. A lack of evidence and information is a high cause of stereotyping. People commonly use symbolic representation and an enormous range of interception which cause stereotypical thinking.
When it comes to stereotyping and why it occurs, being aware of a stereotype is enough to have it affect one into using it. One does not need to believe a stereotype to true in order to use it. Simply knowing its existence is enough for one to use it subconsciously or even consciously. Many people can come to the same opinion and create the same stereotypes, but everyone learns them differently. These social judgments reflect our very thoughts and personal feelings even if we disagree with our personal feelings and view them as wrong. Patterns of thought, feeling, and action are generated by features of the larger social context. These include one’s personal relationship with various groups, position in society as a whole, nature of various social institutions, and collection of beliefs, values, and expectations that one uses to collectively define culture.
A great number of people relate to social influences and prior interaction such as childhood. Childhood influences are some of the most complex and influential factors in developing stereotypes. The learning of stereotypes at any age, but considerably during early childhood, is caused by beliefs, attitudes, and problems. One can learn stereotypes through the most influential factors or teachers. For most people, this would be the parent figure. At young ages we learn stereotypes of gender, age, occupation, dress, and attractiveness. In a child’s first year of life, he has acquired social categories, by the age of three or four, the child has develop an ingroup bias, and by the fifth year of life, he has created strong stereotypes.
The media, peers, experiences, and even true facts are some major influences on learning stereotypes. People automatically filter everything that they observe and experience, and give the most weight to what is prominent. This is why distinctive examples affect us more than common examples. Erroneous correlations cause stereotypical thinking and are frequently formed when two idiosyncratic events are paired together. It does not take much information to construct stereotypes which is why they are so common.
Even while making a judgment of others, because of the of evidence to base it on, one rarely even knows what they are basing their assumption on let alone if they are basing it on anything. The use of comparisons in stereotyping is further in depth than what it appears. For example, when someone stereotypes, they often involuntarily presuppose that the behavior of another individual is similar to their own and assume by analogy that the mental processes that cause these activities are comparable to what their purposes would be in doing such a behavior. At the basis of approximately all human interactions is the assumption that it is probable to infer the mental process of other people. It is supported on the suggestion of observation, which is valid. Predicting the behavior or attitude of someone, accurately or inaccurately, is based on our capability to observe and knowledge of his situations. Yet stereotypes based on circumstances and conditions tend to be less accurate.
People reason through the use of analogy. There are two things that must hold true in order for analogical interpretation to be even a fraction precise. First, the one using the reasoning of analogy must know his own mind correctly. Second, the mind of who is being judged or predicted must be exceedingly similar, if not exactly identical, to the person doing the reasoning. If these two did occur, this would be an infrequent case of mental similarity. Mental similarity indicates how parallel individuals’ reactions and reasoning are to one another.
People often disregard evidence that behavior is governed by situation in favor of evidence that action is the product of stable individual dispositions. This is called Fundamental Attribution Error or Correspondence Bias. In the category of Fundamental Attribution Error, peoples’ predictions of others are not in any way affected by the quality or quantity of the evidence mainly for the reason that the information is unnoticed or ignored. In this scenario, acquaintances predict in equal accuracy as strangers.
People also tend to stereotype because of another dominant factor: Everyone wants to be able to feel good about himself. Psychodynamic perspective demands that stereotypes protect one from anxiety and provides one with self-esteem benefits. By titling one’s own personal group as the standard group or customary group and stereotyping others into groups personally viewed as lesser, it provides one with a sense of worth. It satisfies the human desire to feel accepted by labeling an individual in his inwardly satisfactory group. A person’s pride contributes to the aspiration to be viewed as the best, and by placing oneself in the personally accepted best group it is satisfied. By creating differences, it eliminates the challenge of understanding the dissimilarity between oneself and others.
Stereotypes and opinions are constantly subject to change. They are influenced by a myriad of social stimuli that present the difference between factors that are trivial and significant. These factors are vulnerable to influences such as personal attitude, communication, groups, society change, and new information because they are embedded in a larger framework. The strength of a stereotype is based on two things. The first being the confidence of the stereotype. The second is new information or influences. New information normally strengthens an opinion even if it contradicts it. This is because new information can be misinterpreted as agreeing with one’s original stereotype. Once a stereotype is learned, it becomes self perpetuating. As a result of this misunderstanding, it causes one to create subgroups. These subgroups can cause much modification or solidification to one’s opinion. Subtypes can become so imprecise that subtypes from the same general group may contradict while others from opposing groups will resemble each other. Nonetheless, through conscious awareness, distortion of perspective can be avoided.
Many scientific theories have derived from the sociological studies of stereotyping and prejudicial thinking. During the early studies it was believed or suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. Sociologists concluded that this was a result of conflict, poor parenting, and inadequate mental and emotion development. They now know differently. Scientist and theorists have concluded that stereotypes do not only exist, but are actually a never ending chain of thoughts.
Certain circumstances can affect the way an individual stereotypes. For instance: Studies have shown that women stereotype more negatively than men, and that women read into appearance more than men. Some theorists argue in favor of the conceptual connection and that one’s own subjective thought about someone is sufficient information to make assumptions about that individual. Other theorists argue that at minimum there must be a casual connection between mental states and behavior to make assumptions or stereotypes. Thus results and opinions may vary according to circumstance and theory. Stereotyping is principally theory and is not based much on factual evidence.
People tend to attribute characteristics to others that are similar to their own attributes. This is supported by the theory of mind. The theory of mind states that people can interpret the behavior of others through an understanding of their beliefs, desires, and intentions. Some people are better than others at using this accurately. The Person Perception theory affirms that certain individuals are more capable of predicting correctly than others. In general, people tend to be fairly rational in how they create inferences about the cause of behavior. Certain circumstances do provide one with a higher chance of correct evaluation. Two examples might be that people tend to be more accurate when calculating the general behavior of someone rather than the behavior in specific situations, and that people are able to better assess friends rather than strangers. An example of a general incorrect assumption is that of basing characteristics off of one’s appearance. The only explanation for one’s actions is his internal state (goals, feeling, personality, traits, motives, values, and sudden impulses), not his appearance. Universally when it comes to emotions, it is quite difficult to evaluate what an individual experiences.
Sociologist Charles E. Hurst of the College of Wooster states that, “One reason for stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of unknown individuals” 4. Different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: Psychologists focus on how experience with groups, patterns of communication about the groups, and intergroup conflict. Sociologists focus on the relations among groups and position of different groups in a social structure. Psychoanalytically-oriented humanists have argued (e.g., Sander Gilman) that stereotypes, by definition, the representations are not accurate, but a projection of one to another.
Stereotypes are not accurate representations of groups, rather they arise as a means of explaining and justifying differences between groups, or system justification. Social status or group position determines stereotype content, not the actual personal characteristics of group members.5 Groups which enjoy fewer social and economic advantages will be stereotyped in a way which helps explain disparities, such as lower employment rates. Although disadvantaged group members may have greater difficulty finding a job due to in-group favoritism, racism, and related social forces, the disadvantaged group member is unjustifiably characterized as 'unmotivated' (he could find a job if he looked hard enough), 'unintelligent' (he's not smart enough to have that job), and 'lazy' (he would rather take hand-outs than work).
Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups. Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences. 6 This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than different. For example, among African Americans, identity as an American citizen is a more salient categorization than racial background; that is, African Americans are more American than African. 7 Yet within American culture, Black and White Americans are often seen as completely different groups.
For as long as there has been a human species, individuals have been different from one another. Persons have gravitated to groups of other persons like themselves. People create and develop categories of qualities by which to classify the groups; some were based on ancestry. Many of these groupings have become the key factors in determining which groups have political, social, and economic power in the world.citation needed
Automatic stereotype activation can be totally involuntary, and is described as the activation of categorically associated "nodes", according to Leopold and Brown from the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Effects, accuracy, terminology
Stereotypes can have a negative and positive impact on individuals. Joshua Aronson and Claude M. Steele have done research on the psychological effects of stereotyping, particularly its effect on African-Americans and women.8 They argue that psychological research has shown that competence is highly responsive to situation and interactions with others.9 They cite, for example, a study which found that bogus feedback to college students dramatically effected their IQ test performance, and another in which students were either praised as very smart, congratulated on their hard work, or told that they scored high. The group praised as smart performed significantly worse than the others. They believe that there is an 'innate ability bias'. These effects are not just limited to minority groups. Mathematically competent white males, mostly math and engineering students, were asked to take a difficult math test. One group was told that this was being done to determine why Asians were scoring better. This group performed significantly worse than the other group.9
Two other types stereotypes would be accurate and inaccurate stereotyping. Accurate stereotypes are those which are based on truth, and inaccurate stereotypes are false descriptions. Context based categories are stereotypes that rely on circumstances. Stimulus salience is stereotyping caused by stimuli which would be practically all stereotyping. Primitive categories are automatically, universally accepted, perceived stereotypes, and would fall under accurate stereotypes collection.
Possible prejudicial effects of stereotypes are:
- Justification of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance
- Unwillingness to rethink one's attitudes and behavior towards stereotyped group
- Preventing some people of stereotyped groups from succeeding in activities or fields
The effects of stereotyping can fluctuate, but for the most part they are negative results particularly in the perspective of longer lengths of time. Stereotyping influences how we process information of someone or a behavior and all aspects of processing information such as attention, interpretation, inference, and retrieval. Stereotypes cause a biased view and when evidence presents a conflict with an opinion, the bias distorts the difference into appearing as supporting verification.
The effects of stereotyping are not always apparent until long periods of time have passed, and will in fact build over time until becoming permanent. Over time, one who is frequently bombarded with being labeled in a stereotype that is false may actually fulfill the prophecy by placing himself into that stereotype and taking on its characteristics. Negative effects may include forming inaccurate opinions of people, scapegoating, making us erroneously judgmental, preventing emotional identification, distress, and impaired performance. Stereotyping painfully reminds those being judged of how society views them. When one has a problem with another member of a group, one commonly labels everyone else in that group with the problem.
People tend to view those apart of ingroups as individuals and those of outgroups as members or the in general, the mass. Everyone should be considered an individual who is not burdened with the problems of others involved in a stereotype.
Sometimes "stereotype" and "prejudice" are confused. Stereotypes are standardized and simplified conceptions of groups, based on some prior assumptions. Stereotypes are created based on some idea of abstract familiarity. Prejudices are more specific - they are predispositions to differential behavior patterns.
Role in art and culture
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Stereotypes are common in various cultural media, where they take the form of dramatic stock characters. These characters are found in the works of playwright Bertolt Brecht, Dario Fo, and Jacques Lecoq, who characterize their actors as stereotypes for theatrical effect. In commedia dell'Arte this is similarly common. The instantly recognizable nature of stereotypes mean that they are effective in advertising and situation comedy. These stereotypes change, and in modern times only a few of the stereotyped characters shown in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress would be recognizable.
In literature and art, stereotypes are clichéd or predictable characters or situations. Throughout history, storytellers have drawn from stereotypical characters and situations, in order to connect the audience with new tales immediately. Sometimes such stereotypes can be sophisticated, such as Shakespeare's Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. Arguably a stereotype that becomes complex and sophisticated ceases to be a stereotype per se by its unique characterisation. Thus while Shylock remains politically unstable in being a stereotypical Jew, the subject of prejudicial derision in Shakespeare's era, his many other detailed features raise him above a simple stereotype and into a unique character, worthy of modern performance. Simply because a feature of a character can be categorized as being typical does not make the entire character a stereotype.
Despite their proximity in etymological roots, cliché and stereotype are not used synonymously in cultural spheres. For example a cliché is a high criticism in narratology where genre and categorization automatically associates a story within its recognizable group. Labeling a situation or character in a story as typical suggests it is fitting for its genre or category. Whereas declaring that a storyteller has relied on cliché is to pejoratively observe a simplicity and lack of originality in the tale. To criticize Ian Fleming for a stereotypically unlikely escape for James Bond would be understood by the reader or listener, but it would be more appropriately criticized as a cliché in that it is overused and reproduced. Narrative genre relies heavily on typical features to remain recognizable and generate meaning in the reader/viewer.
The teen sitcom, Saved By The Bell features a typical group of high school stereotypes such as a class clown (Zack Morris), a jock (A.C. Slater), a nerd (Samuel "Screech" Powers), a cheerleader (Kelly Kapowski), a feminist (Jessie Spano), and a superficial fashion plate (Lisa Turtle). Some observed the sitcom, like many teen sitcoms of that time, in addition to stereotyping people, stereotyping an institution itself, that of high school. TV stereotypes of high schools have often promoted a "typical American school" as football games, fashion styles, skirt chasing, and not much devotion to academics or studying.
In movies and TV the halo effect is often used. This is when, for example, attractive men and women are assumed to be happier, stronger, nicer people, explained by Greenwald and Banaji from Psychological Review.
Racial and ethnic stereotyping
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Native Americans
- See also: Stereotypes of Native Americans
The stratification and separation of groups, especially racial minorities, in the United States began in the nation’s earliest years of colonization. With the colonists’ first contact with the Native Americans, the stereotype of “the savage” was born. 4 They were first thought of as "noble savages" by the European because of their ability to subsist on the land. Over time, as colonists spread west, Natives American were seen as obstacles and their image became more negative. Native Americans were portrayed in popular media as wild, primitive, uncivilized, dangerous people who continuously attack white settlers, cowboys, and stagecoaches and ululate while holding one hand in front of their mouths. They speak invariably in a deep voice and use stop words like "How" and "Ugh". In cartoons, comic strips and animated cartoons their skin color was depicted as deep red. In westerns and other media portrayals they are usually called "Indians". Examples of this stereotypical image of Native Americans can be found in many American westerns until the early 1960s and cartoons like Peter Pan (1953 film). In other stereotypes, they smoked peace pipes, wore face paints, danced round totem poles (often with a hostage tied to them), sent smoke signals, lived in teepees, wore feathered headresses, scalped their foes, and said 'um' instead of 'the' or 'a'.
As colonization continued in the US, groups were separated into categories like “Christians” and “heathens” and “civilized” and “savage” 4. It took merely decades for these attitudes and ideas to firmly plant themselves in the minds of Americans; today’s stereotypes of Native Americans are rooted in the colonists’ initial thoughts. The media perpetuates these stereotypes by portraying Native Americans in a negative light, such as savage and hostile 4. Many Whites view Native Americans as devoid of self-control and unable to handle responsibility. Malcolm D. Holmes and Judith A. Antell hypothesize that such ideas about Native Americans form the ideology that is used today to justify the disparity between Whites and Native Americans 10. This very rigid, fixed framework on the perception of Native Americans and other stereotypical depictions of other races and nationalities has been continued in many books, films, cartoons, comic strips, plays and songs. Today, the 19th century stereotype of Native Americans lives on for the majority of people. Modern Native Americans as they live today are rarely portrayed in popular culture, one notable exception being Chief from One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest.
However, there are more positive images, of Native Americans being noble, peaceful people, who lived in harmony with nature and each other, e.g. Dances with Wolves.
Black stereotypes
- See also: Stereotypes of African Americans
Early stereotypes
In centuries before and during the first half of the 20th century black people were often depicted as dumb, evil, lazy, poor, animalistic, uncivilized, un-Christian 4 people. The early British colonists brought these initial thoughts with them to the US. White colonists commonly believed that black people were inferior to white people. These thoughts helped to justify black slavery and the institution of many laws that continually condoned inhumane treatment and perpetuated to keep black people in a lower socioeconomic position. 4. Black people were usually depicted as slaves or servants, working in cane fields or carrying large piles of cotton. They were often portrayed as devout Christians going to church and singing gospel music. In many vaudeville shows, minstrel acts, cartoons, comics and animated cartoons of this period they were depicted as sad, lazy, dim-witted characters with big lips who sing bluesy songs and are good dancers, but get excited when confronted with dice games, chickens or watermelons (examples: all the characters portrayed by Stepin Fetchit and black characters in cartoons like Sunday Go to Meetin' Time and All This and Rabbit Stew). A more joyful black image, yet still very stereotypical, was provided by eternally happy black characters like Uncle Tom, Uncle Remus and Louis Armstrong's equally joyous stage persona. Another popular stereotype from this era was the black who is scared of ghosts (and usually turns white out of fear). Butlers were sometimes portrayed as black (for example the butler in many Shirley Temple movies). Housemaids were usually depicted as black, heavy-set middleaged women who dress in large skirts (examples of this type are Mammy Two-Shoes, Aunt Jemima, Beulah and more recently the title character of Big Momma's House). Children are often pickaninnies like Little Black Sambo and Golliwogg. Black jive (dialect) was also often used in comedy, like for instance in the show Amos 'n Andy.
African black people were usually depicted as primitive, childlike, cannibalistic persons who live in tribes, carry spears, believe in witchcraft and worship their wizard. White colonists are depicted tricking them by selling junk in exchange for valuable things and/or scaring them with modern technology. A well-known example of this image is Tintin in Africa. When white people are caught by African tribes they are usually put in a large, black cauldron so they can be cooked and eaten. Sometimes black Africans are depicted as pygmies with childlike behavior so that they can be ridiculed as being similar to children. Other stereotypical images are the male black African dressed in lip plates or with a bone sticking through his nasal septum. Stereotypical female black African depictions include the bare breasted woman with large breasts and notably fat buttocks (examples of this stereotype are the 19th century sideshow attraction Saartjie Baartman and Robert Crumb's comic strip character Angelfood McSpade) or the woman who wears multiple rings around her giraffe-like neck (note: this type of neck ornament is also common in Burma with women from the Kayan (Burma) tribe, but is generally associated with Africa (like in the Bugs Bunny cartoon Which Is Witch).
Secretary of State John C. Calhoun arguing for the extension of slavery in 1844 said "Here (scientific confirmation) is proof of the necessity of slavery. The African is incapable of self-care and sinks into lunacy under the burden of freedom. It is a mercy to give him the guardianship and protection from mental death."
Even after slavery ended the intellectual capacity of Black people was still frequently questioned. Lewis Terman wrote in The measurement of intelligence in 1916
"(Black and other ethnic minority children) are uneducable beyond the nearest rudiments of training. No amount of school instruction will ever make them intelligent voters or capable citizens in the sense of the world…their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stock from which they come…Children of this group should be segregated in special classes and be given instruction which is concrete and practical. They cannot master abstractions, but they can be made efficient workers…There is no possibility at present of convincing society that they should not be allowed to reproduce, although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusual prolific breeding.)"
Modern black stereotypes
- See also: Acting white
Since the 1960s the stereotypical image of black people has changed in some media. More positive depictions appeared where black people and African-Americans are portrayed as great athletes and superb singers and dancers. In many films and television series since the 1970s black people are depicted as good natured, kind, honest and intelligent persons. Often they are the best friend of the white protagonist (examples: Miami Vice, Lethal Weapon, Magnum Force). Some critics believed this political correctness lead to another stereotypical image where black people are often depicted too positive. 1989 showed that blacks were more likely than whites to be described in demeaning intellectual terms.11 Political activist and one-time presidential candidate Rev. Jesse Jackson said in 1985 that the news media portray blacks as less intelligent than we are.12 Film director Spike Lee explains that these images have negative impacts. "In my neighborhood, we looked up to athletes, guys who got the ladies, and intelligent people,".
Even so-called positive images of Black people can lead to stereotypes about intelligence. In Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race, John Hoberman writes that the prominence of African-American athletes encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in black communities.13 In a 1997 study on racial stereotypes in sports, participants were shown a photograph of a white or a black basketball player. They then listened to a recorded radio broadcast of a basketball game. White photographs were rated as exhibiting significantly more intelligence in the way they played the game, even though the radio broadcast and target player represented by the photograph were the same throughout the trial.14 Several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights 'natural black athleticism' has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas, such as intelligence.15
Patricia J. Williams, writer for The Nation, said this of Jar Jar Binks, a character from the 1999 and 2002 Star Wars films The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones, respectively: "...intentionally or not, Jar Jar's pratfalls and high jinks borrow heavily from the genre of minstrelsy. Despite the amphibian get-up, his manchild-like idiocy is imported directly from the days of Amos 'n' Andy." Many aspects of Jar Jar's character are believed to be highly reminiscent of the archetypes portrayed in blackface minstrelsy.16)
North African and Middle Eastern and Muslim stereotypes
Especially in American, Australian and European Cultures, they are often depicted as fanatical Muslims who are often out on the kill and shout out or chant gibberish with many "ch-"sounds (Ironically, there is no "ch" sound in Arabic). Their noses, mustaches and beards are often exaggerated in caricature. Popular images are the Muslim flying on a carpet, climbing on an erect rope, riding a camel, drawing out daggers or sabres, ululating, or sitting in a tent smoking a water pipe. Arabic people are often depicted as rich oil sheiks with sunglasses and a turban (often mocked by comedians as being a towel or a diaper) on their head. Women are dressed in burkas and often carry a vase on their head. Young Arab or Turkish women are often shown as belly dancers. Since the 1970s and especially since the September 11, 2001 attacks the negative depiction of Arab and Middle Eastern people as terrorists has increased throughout the world. In many Western countries they are seen as uneducated, fanatic, aggressive, criminal, antisemitic, misogynistic and dangerous people who don't work but live on government funding, slaughter sheep in their kitchens, have many children and plot to take over the world. Many far right parties and organizations use this stereotypical image for propaganda uses. Just like Indian or Pakistani people, Arabic people are often depicted as shopkeepers or managers of supermarkets. An example of stereotyping is offered by the town of Herouxville in Quebec, Canada. A declaration issued by the town in January 2007, which was designed to inform immigrants, "that the way of life which they abandoned when they left their countries of origin cannot be recreated here [i.e. Herouxville]". It then went on to state that the immigrant population would therefore have to refrain from their cultural norms and activities such as to "kill women by stoning them in public, burning them alive, burning them with acid, circumcising them, etc."17
Indian, Pakistani, Hindu and other South Asian stereotypes
- See also: Stereotypes of South Asians
Indians and other South Asians are often depicted as shopkeepers, taxi drivers, supermarket store clerks, gurus, snake charmers etc. They are shown riding on elephants, worshiping cows, watching Bollywood movies, and eating hot spices and curry. Women are dressed in sari. Another popular image is the near-naked fakir, hypnotist or illusionist who can stick knives in his body, fly on a carpet, climb on an erect rope, walk barefoot on burning coals, refuses all food, levitates, meditates, remains underground with his head or body and sit or sleep on a bed of nails. A famous example of a Indian stereotype is Apu Nahasapeemapetilon. However modern day Indian Americans are often stereotyped as either software programmers or students. In the US the stereotypical Gujaratis run motels, Punjabis drive cabs and South Indians work in the IT arena.
East Asian stereotypes
Non-Asian people often refer to all people of South East Asian descent as "Chinese", even if they weren't born there. A usual target when referring to South East Asian people are their typical eyes, often ridiculed as "slant eyes", "slitty eyes" and often imitated by people of a different race by stretching their eyes with both index fingers to resemble South East Asian eyes. From this stereotype another stereotype is derived: their supposed lack of peripheral vision (which attributes to yet another stereotype: their "bad driving") Other common stereotypical behaviour associated with South East Asians are for instance: being intelligent in math, being unsociable, being martial art experts, obedient women, speaking in aphorisms and replacing the letters "l" and "r" with each other (although Mandarin and Cantonese distinguish these sounds).
Since the end of the 19th century South East Asia has been viewed with fear in Western culture. The term "Yellow Peril" derives from this period. During the 1930s and World War II when Japan started invading South East Asia this fear only rose and many Western propaganda from this period (for example cartoons like Tokio Jokio and Bugs Bunny Nips the Nips) depicted Japanese people as evil by nature. After the war this image remained vivid in Western popular culture. In early albums of the Belgian comic strip series Blake and Mortimer and Buck Danny Asians were still often depicted as dangerous villains. When China became a Communist country in 1949 Western culture feared that the numerous population of the country who increase the spread of Communism throughout the world. From this period stems the caricature of the Chinese dressed in Party uniform, shouting or reading aloud from Mao's Red Book. Even after Mao's death, when China became more Western there is still fear in some Western people's minds for China's enormous economical growth. Japan's economical growth since 1955 has met with similar receptions.
Old Asian people are often depicted as extremely wise, bearded men who speak in aphorisms and are forever trying to calm down their young, enthusiastic students (an example of this stereotype is the martial master in Karate Kid). Young East Asian women are also depicted as being attractive and working as exotic dancers, masseuses and manicurists. East Asian cuisine is stereotyped, as well; Japan is known for seafood, such as sushi, fish eggs and whales. Chinese delicacies like thousand-year-old egg and bird nest soup are well-known among Westerners, and Koreans are said to favour kimchi and dog meat.
Chinese stereotypes
Chinese people have often been portrayed in the media as rice eating, idiotically grinning people who have long queues, wear "douli" on their heads and walk around with their hands hidden in long robes. They usually mutter gibberish with many words that rhyme on "-ng"-sounds. Sometimes Chinese people have been depicted with buck teeth (like the character Mr. Yunioshi) and long fingernails. Especially in late 19th century and early to mid 20th century Western popular culture Chinese people were always depicted as if they were still in the Middle Ages, with robes and clothes that resemble Confucius. A popular stereotype was the evil Chinese villain who always had a beard and/or a long moustache, grinning with an evil laugh and bowing forward while putting his fingertops together. Usually this Chinese villain was extremely intelligent, dangerous and sometimes insane. He often practiced Ancient Chinese torture techniques such as slow slicing and the Chinese water torture. Example of this Chinese villain stereotype are Fu Manchu, Li Shoon and Dr. No. The female counterpart of this character was the Dragon Lady. A more gentle stereotype is the Chinese doctor or pharmacist who uses strange rituals, drinks and techniques to cure his patient. In westerns Chinese people were often depicted as proprietors of laundries or opium kits. Other old stereotypes associated with China are throwing babies in the river (as famously debunked in The Blue Lotus), women wearing tiny shoes (See: foot binding), litting fireworks, walking behind each other dressed as a Chinese dragon, playing Go (game), Mahjong or ping pong, meditating, practicing acupuncture, philosophising, drinking Chinese tea, having bonzai trees and porcelain, eating rice, bird nests (actually bird nest soup) and dogs,...
Japanese stereotypes
- See also: Japanese stereotypes
Japanese people are often represented as extremely polite, intelligent, and obedient but dislike foreigners. They bow extensively and are very good business people. Their stop words are: "honourable", "regrettable" and "please". Other Japanese stereotypes are the geisha, the sumo wrestler, the samurai, the martial arts expert, the cute, sexy girl in school uniform, and the Japanese tourist who uses his film camera or photo camera to film or photograph everything in sight. Japanese people are often depicted as tiny men in black suits who often wear glasses. In modern American pop culture Japanese cartoons (anime) are often ridiculed as being violent and minimalistically animated with characters who simply freeze in one position while a vague background goes by. Japanese monster movies (in reference to Godzilla and Gamera) are often ridiculed as being surrealistic and full of bad, cheap special effects like for instance men wearing rubber monster suits. Well known stereotypical Japanese characters are Noodle, Akira, Gogo Yubari.
During the Second World War, Japanese people, in particular the soldiers, were shown in the Western World as having thick glasses, and sticking-out teeth. Their flag was usually on many objects.
In China and South Korea, Japanese men are often represented as hairy men whose body hairs are thick, and Japanese women are often represented as lustful women with huge breasts.
White stereotypes
- See also: Stereotypes of White people
The social definition of "White" has changed over the years, and several White groups have at times been portrayed by the media as unintelligent. This includes ethnic groups such as the British, Irish, and Slavs.18
White American stereotypes
Especially in European countries, Americans are stereotyped as brash, ignorant, self-important, unintelligent, decadent, prudish on sexual matters, and obese. The image of the obese American could be due to perception of the American diet, such as the popularity and global spread of American fast food franchises such as McDonald's and Burger King, which has fueled America's obesity crisis19. Another popular American stereotype is the cowboy, the overconfident cigar chomping business man (see for instance Tintin in America, where both stereotypes are present) and the ignorant tourist couple who has no interest or respect for authentic culture (see for instance the American tourist couples depicted in the Fawlty Towers episode Waldorf Salad, Monty Python's Meaning of Life and Flushed Away). After World War II the countries who were freed from their oppressors were very positive about the US and gladly embraced American products like Coca Cola, chewing gum and Hollywood films . This international positive American image changed drastically during the 1960s and 1970s at the height of the Vietnam War. Since then Americans are seen globally in a more negative light as arrogant, gung-ho, ruthless, imperialistic, capitalistic warmongers and destroyers of authentic international cultures and the natural environment.This negative stereotypical image has remained intact over the years, also due to negative foreign news or documentary reports that often show Americans who are either racist, obese, supporters of wars in foreign countries, gun crazy, obsessed with God and Jesus, reacting against sex or nudity in the media and extremely paranoid of terrorist attacks. In recent years, some stereotypes of whites living in the rural Western United States have emerged. Although these stereotypes show some similarities with southern redneck stereotypes, they are unique, usually revolving around cowboy culture, survivalism, or Mormonism. One stereotype is the shotgun-toting, antisocial, fundamentalist conspiracy theorist who lives in a wooden shack and fears outsiders. He is typically waiting and preparing for some sort of apocalyptic event involving the Antichrist and/or a government that attempts to dismantle the constitution. This stereotype is likely the result of various incidents during the 1990's.
In the US itself white people from the Southern states are frequently used as comic characters. They are depicted as angry and/or dimwitted rednecks and/or yokels who are ultraconservative, devoutly religious, Ku Klux Klan members, still carry the Confederate Flag around, grab their guns when encountering strangers and speak in a typical slang. Sometimes incest relations between them and their siblings are suggested. Examples of these stereotypes are Cletus Spuckler, The Beverly Hillbillies, several characters in the films Deliverance and O Brother, Where Art Thou? and the Family Guy episode To Love and Die in Dixie.
A lot of these American stereotypes are based on American sitcoms where characters like Al Bundy and Archie Bunker are seen as representative for the typical dumb, cultureless white American. There are many other examples throughout the media, but the classic example is Homer Simpson, the obese, lazy and dim-witted middle American from the cartoon, The Simpsons20. The show itself parodies many aspects of American life, culture and society21.
Canadian stereotypes
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Canadian people are stereotyped as beer-obsessed, tuque-wearing, somewhat slow-witted ice hockey players who always end their sentences with "eh". (This last stereotype is based on the characters Bob and Doug McKenzie from the Canadian sketch comedy show SCTV). Canada is viewed as always cold. Canadians are also stereotyped as people who live in igloos or log cabins. In the United States Canadians are sometimes viewed as excessively polite or nice, usually to the point of being pushovers. Canadians are often stereotypically represented as Mounties or a lumberjack. Films depicting stereotypical views of Canadians include Canadian Bacon and Strange Brew. In America someone wearing jeans and a jean jacket is said to be wearing a "Canadian Tuxedo". Mounties are rather common in stereotypes of Canada, as well as distinct pronunciation of the word "about" as "aboot".
English stereotypes
The English people are stereotyped as inordinately proper, imperialistic, phlegmatic, polite and sophisticated, yet obsessed with class and social status and curiously convinced of their own superiority. In many countries, especially on the European continent, they are seen as incredibly awful cooks, something that has been spoofed in Asterix in Britain (see also English cuisine). In Canada and the United States English people are often depicted as having bad teeth (for instance in the Simpsons episode Last Exit to Springfield, the Family Guy episode One If by Clam, Two If by Sea and the film Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery). 22 Another stereotype is their obsession with tea and crumpets, and are rather dimwitted despite their stiff outlook. A popular English stereotype is the upper class man dressed in bowler hat, black suit who always carries an umbrella, believes in tradition and the monarchy and interrupts everything for the sake of having his tea time. English stereotypes are often depicted as stiff business men, nannies (for instance: Mary Poppins), aviators, sailors, military commanders and gardeners. Colonials and military commanders are sometimes depicted as stiff, pompous English people (examples are Colonel Hathi in Disney's Jungle Book). Another stereotype is the Redcoat, a traditional British soldier with a musket, cannon, or on a wooden ship, as shown in the South Park episode The Snuke. A notable female English stereotype is the witty, sophisticated and sexy young "English Rose" (examples are: Emma Peel and various British Bond Girls). Another positive stereotype is the charming, witty, intellectual, male Brit (examples are James Bond, Sherlock Holmes, John Steed, most of Hugh Grant's roles in romantic comedies and Hugh Parkfield from the Simpsons episode Lisa's Wedding). However behind this layer of fake charm may lurk dishonourable intentions. In Europe, Britons are seen as using the Imperial System. Incorrectly, stereotypes sometimes show England as having the death penalty, whereas ironically England no longer has it.
Characters in historical movies often have English accents even when the setting has nothing to do with England. Upper-class characters are also often given English accents. In more recent times, many movie villains, including Benedict from Last Action Hero, Scar from The Lion King, Hannibal Lecter from The Silence of the Lambs, Commodus from Gladiator and even most of the members of the Empire in Star Wars with the notable exception of Darth Vader and at least one officer, have all been portrayed by British actors speaking with English accents. They are usually represented as eloquent, snobbish characters sure of their own intellectual ability, who in the end are humiliated by someone who is more egalitarian.
Notably, in Disney films from the 1990s onward, English accents are generally employed to serve one of two purposes: slapstick comedy or evil machiavelians.23 Examples include The Lion King (Zazu and Scar, respectively), The Hunchback of Notre Dame (Victor the Gargoyle and Frollo, respectively), and Pocahontas (Wiggins and Ratcliffe, respectively, both of whom happen to be played by the same actor, American David Ogden Stiers).
Scottish stereotypes
Scots are often depicted as dour, thrifty, misers. Grouchy, yet honest, trustworthy and intelligent red bearded people who are dressed in kilts and play bagpipes. They drink scotch whisky and eat haggis. Sometimes they are depicted playing golf or Highland Games. Invariably they have names starting with "Mac". Stereotypical words used are "aye", "laddie", "wee" and a strong emphasis on the letter "r". Scots are often depicted, particularly by the southern English, as fatalistic and with chips on their shoulders. Their neighbours also tend to see Scots as almost exclusively working class. This may due to the mistaken tendency among the English to equate all Scottish languages, dialects or accents with regional non-RP English accents. Examples of stereotypical Scottish people are Groundskeeper Willie and Fat Bastard.
Welsh stereotypes
Welsh people are often regarded as stoic, if somewhat dull people with rare talents when it comes to singing and an obsession with rugby union. The Welsh are often shown as being a nation of druids, Arthurian legends and coal miners - insular, and unwelcoming to the English but kindly to other nationalities. They are also known for their food and ability to hold their liquor. They are also known for showing great courage in the face of overwhelming odds. They are often portrayed as having sexual relationships with sheep due to Wales being primarily agricultural, which has led to the term "Sheepshagger". They are predominately shown with the "sing song" accent of the South Wales valleys though this one of the least common accents. Often the Welsh language is portrayed as completely nonensical and involving a lot of saliva.
Irish stereotypes
Although the Irish, Germans, French, etc are considered ethnic groups today, the common term in the 19th century was "race". Much was made of Celtic versus Anglo-Saxon racial characteristics, regarding historic identity and behavior patterns. An analysis of nineteenth-century British attitudes by Mary J. Hickman and Bronwen Walter wrote that the 'Irish Catholic' was one viewed as an "other," or a different race in the construction of the British nationalist myth [of course this view no longer exists in any way, the Irish are now seen as fellow inhabitants of the British Isles]. Likewise the Irish considered the English "other" and fought hard to break away and create their own homeland, which they finally did in the 1920s. 24
One 19th century British cartoonist even depicted Irish immigrants as ape-like and as racially different. One American doctor in the 1850s James Redfield, argued that "facial angle" was a sign of intelligence and character. He likened the facial characteristics of the human races to animals. Thus Irishmen resembled dogs, Yankees were like bears, Germans like lions, Negroes like elephants, Englishmen like bulls, Turks like turkeys, Persians like peacocks, Greeks like sheep, Hindus like swans, Jews like goats, and Frenchmen like frogs.25 In the 20th century physical stereotypes survived in the comic books until the 1950s, with Irish characters like Mutt and Jeff, and Jiggs and Maggie appearing daily in hundreds of newspapers. 26
Gnomes and leprechauns sometimes speak with dubious Irish accents, probably due to the popular Irish folkloric image of gnomes and dwarves.
Contemporary stereotypes attempt to portray the Irish as frivolous drunkards, with an innate proclivity for brawling and misbehavior. They are shown using the phrase 'so it is' at the end of statements.
Australian stereotypes
A lot of these stereotypes are reflected in Crocodile Dundee and Monty Python's Bruces sketch and the character Sir Les Patterson. Australian stereotypical characters always use expressions like "Crikey!", "G'day, mate" and "Put another shrimp on the barbie" (despite the term prawn is used in Australia). They are often represented as being unsophisticated and obsessed with beer and surfing, boomerangs and kangaroos. Australian men are often shown as being macho, misogynistic brutes. Almost all Australians from outside the east coast cities are depicted as rough, almost redneck people with a distrust for strangers, and their men are always unshaven 'Crocodile Dundee' types. The 'Aussie' woman is seen as a beach babe with a sexy accent or conversely a more loutish tomboy figure who swears often.
Dutch stereotypes
The Netherlands are often referred to as "Holland", while this is actually a province in the country itself. Dutchmen and women are often depicted wearing clogs, carrying cheese and walking around in tulip fields with many wind mills and cows in the background. Huge dikes protect them from floods, as depicted in the popular story about Hans Brinker and the Silver Skates, which is in fact an American story and not a real life Dutch incident. A more modern day view of the Netherlands depicts the people as drug addicts who smoke joints while Dutch streets are full of brothels and prostitutes. This modern stereotype view is based on the more liberal attitudes towards soft drugs, sexuality and prostitution of the country in comparison with other countries. In Europe Dutch people are often depicted as being arrogant know-it-alls who are thrifty about money.
French stereotypes
French people are often depicted as dirty, unshaven, over sexed, curly moustached people wearing berets, striped shirts and carrying baguettes under the arm. They are often depicted as being arrogant, rude to foreigners, lazy and always speak English like Maurice Chevalier. In the US Frenchmen are often ridiculed for being "cowards" in World War II, due to the fact they surrendered rather quickly during the German invasion in order to prevent the destruction of Paris (even though the French Army was surprised by the German attack and had to surrender because they were unprepared to such a large invasion). In popular culture Frenchmen will frequently be seemingly addicted to croissants, tarts or playing petanque. In a more positive image they are often depicted as onion sellers or excellent cooks (Examples are Louis in The Little Mermaid and the cooks in Ratatouille). French stereotypes are used quite a lot in comedies and animated cartoons where French characters always talk in the same way: "the" and "this" are pronounced "zee" and "zis", the words "mais oui", "ami" or "mon chéri" are used non-stop and the "w" is pronounced "ooweee". Examples are Inspector Clouseau, Lumière in Beauty and the Beast, Le Frog and his henchmen ("frog" is a racially offensive nickname given to the French) in Flushed Away, all the French characters in the British sitcom 'Allo 'Allo, and Pepe Le Pew. Sometimes, like in the movie Shrek (where the British character Robin Hood is inexplicably depicted as being French), people are depicted as being French for no apparent reason other than evoking laughs while using the accent.
German stereotypes
German people have been